| |
CHAPTER
1
Why a Global, Multicultural Psychology of Women
|
1 |
| Femininity
and Masculinity Are Socially Constructed 4 |
|
| |
How
Many Genders Are There? 7 |
|
| If
Gender Is the Issue, Why Focus on Women? 11 |
|
| |
Should
a Psychology of Women Be “Feminist”? 13 |
|
| Why
a Multicultural, Global Approach? 16 |
|
| Stereotyping
and Discrimination: Universal Barriers for Women? 18 |
|
| |
How
Universal Are Gender Stereotypes? 19
Where Are Gender Stereotypes Most Traditional? 22
Components of Gender Stereotypes 22
The Impact of Stereotypes 23
Prejudice: Negative Evaluation of Women and Their Work 24
Sexism’s Links with Other Forms of Prejudice 25
Discrimination: Keeping Women Down and Out 30 |
|
Summary
33
Key Terms 35
Discussion Questions 35
For Additional Reading 35
Web Resources 36 |
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| |
|
|
|
CHAPTER
2
Female-Male Comparisons: The Meaning and Significance of Difference
|
37 |
A
Brief History of the Research 39
Approaches to Knowledge: Issues of Method, Evidence, and Truth 41
|
|
| |
Feminist
Issues and Influences in Psychological Research 41
Doing Science:
Logical Positivism, Essentialism, and Social Constructionism 45
What Is Good Scientific Evidence? 48 |
|
| |
|
Framing
the Research Question 48
Research Design: Samples and Methods 48
Group Comparisons 50
Interpreting the Results: What Is a Difference? 52
Interpreting the Results: Why Is There a Difference? 53 |
|
| |
Alternative
Approaches to Knowledge 54 |
|
| Gender
Differences and Similarities in Cognitive Abilities or Styles 55 |
|
| |
Research
on Cognitive Differences 57 |
|
| |
|
Verbal
Performance 58
Quantitative Performance 59
Visual—Spatial Performance 63 |
|
| |
Explanations
for Gender Differences in Cognitive Performance 65 |
|
Gender
Differences and Similarities in Aggression 69
Explaining Differences and Similarities: Can Biology and Environment
Be Separated? 71
The Meaning of Difference 73
The Question of Differences: The Wrong Question? 74
Summary 75
Key Terms 76
Discussion Questions 76
For Additional Reading 77
Web Resource 77 |
|
| |
|
|
|
CHAPTER
3
Growing Up Female: The Female Body and Its Meanings
|
78 |
| Sexual
Differentiation: How Bodies Become Female or Male 80 |
|
| |
Step
1: The Chromosomes 82
Step 2: The Gonads 82
Step 3: Hormones 83
Step 4: The Internal Reproductive Tract 83
Step 5: The External Genitalia 84
The Language of Sexual Differentiation 84 |
|
Does
the Brain Differentiate by Sex? 85
The Next Step: Rearing 87 |
|
| |
Intersexuality
and Behavioral Gender Differences 89 |
|
| The
Female Body 92 |
|
| |
Menstruation
93
|
|
| |
|
PMS,
Lunar Cycles, and “Menstrual Joy” 96
Menstrual Synchrony 100 |
|
| |
Pregnancy
and Childbirth 102 |
|
| Controlling
the Female Body 105 |
|
| |
Female
Genital Mutilation 105
Virginity Testing 108
The Controversy over Abortion 108 |
|
Confining
the Female Body: Seclusion and Veiling 110
Displaying the Female Body 111 |
|
| |
| |
Body
Shape and Weight 112
Face, Skin, and Hair 116 |
|
Summary
118
Key Terms 119
Discussion Questions 120
For Additional Reading 120
Web Resources 121 |
|
| |
|
|
|
CHAPTER
4
Growing Up Female II: Expectations, Images, and Identities
|
122 |
| Theories
of How Gender Shapes Who We Are 124 |
|
| |
Psychoanalytic/Identification
Theories 125 |
|
| |
|
Sigmund
Freud 125
Karen Homey 126
Nancy Chodorow 127
Ellyn Kaschak 130
Psychoanalysis and Cultural Differences 131 |
|
| |
Evolutionary
Theories 132
Social Learning Theories 135
Cognitive Developmental Theories 138
Beyond Childhood: Social Roles 139 |
|
Models
and Media Messages around the World 140
What Does It Mean to Be “Feminine”? 145 |
|
| |
Psychological
Androgyny 146
Gender Schema Theory 147
Gender-Based Identity and Other Identities: Shaping the Pool of Possible
Selves 149
|
|
| |
Identity
Flexibility and Change 154
The Self as a Cultural Construction 156 |
|
Summary
157
Key Terms 159
Discussion Questions 159
For Additional Reading 159
Web Resources 160 |
|
| |
|
|
|
CHAPTER
5
Getting The Message:
Self-Confidence, Assertiveness, and Entitlement
|
161 |
| Self-Confidence,
Courage, and Femininity 163 |
|
| |
Girls’
Self-Confidence 164
A Loss of Self-Esteem at Adolescence? 170
Race/Ethnicity and the Gender Gap in Self-Esteem 173
Confidence, Education, and Life Choices 179
Culture and the Construction of Entitlement 183 |
|
| Girls
and Women Using Power 185 |
|
| |
Entitlement
and the Use of Power 185
Reactions to Female Power 187 |
|
Summary
190
Key Terms 191
Discussion Questions 191
For Additional Reading 191
Web Resources 192 |
|
| |
|
|
|
CHAPTER
6
Connections: Communicating with and Relating to Others
|
193 |
| Communication
196 |
|
| |
Verbal
Communication 196 |
|
| |
|
Conversational
Dominance 196
Listening and Conversational Maintenance 197
“Troubles Talk” 198
Speech Styles 199
Language Topics: What Do We Talk About? 200
Language as a Way of Making Masculinity the Norm 202
Language as a Way to Stereotype, Categorize, and Belittle Women 203
Language as a Way of Resistance for Women 203
Computer-Mediated Communication 205 |
|
| |
Nonverbal
Communication 206 |
|
| |
|
Gaze
206
Touch 206
Posture 207
Facial Expression 208
Personal Space 208 |
|
| |
Why
Should Gender Be Related to Communication Patterns? 208 |
|
| Friendship
210 |
|
| |
Friendships
between Women 210 |
|
| |
|
Diversity
in Women‘s Friendships 212
Some Paradoxes of Women’s Friendships 214
Women’s Friendships across Boundaries of Race or Culture 215 |
|
| |
Women’s
Friendships with Men 218
How Friendship Patterns Reflect Social Context 219 |
|
Summary 220
Key Terms 221
Discussion Questions 221
For Additional Reading 222
Web Resources 222 |
|
| |
|
|
|
CHAPTER
7
Family and Intimate Relationships
|
223 |
The
Context of Intimate Relationships: Family Structure 225
The Couple Bond 226 |
|
| |
Love
226
Power, Influence, and Equality in Couple Relationships 229 |
|
| |
|
Equity
and the Principle of Least Interest 232
Resources 233 |
|
| |
Must
Everyone Be Part of a Couple? 237
Marriage: Legalizing the Couple Bond 238 |
|
| |
|
Gay
Marriage? 239 |
|
| Families
and Parenthood 243 |
|
| |
Mothers
and Children 244 |
|
| |
|
Lesbian
Mothers 248
Single Mothers 249 |
|
| |
Mother—Daughter
Relationships 251
Fathers and Children 252
Women Who Do Not Have Children 255 |
|
Summary
256
Key Terms 257
Discussion Questions 257
For Additional Reading 257
Web Resources 258 |
|
| |
|
|
|
CHAPTER
8
Women’s Work
|
259 |
| Job,
Family, and Household Tasks: All of It Is Work for Women 261 |
|
| |
Women’s
Paid Work 263
Women’s Unpaid Work 266 |
|
| Equity
and Discrimination 267 |
|
| |
Discrimination
in Hiring, Evaluating, and Paying Workers 268 |
|
| |
|
Undervaluing
the Work Done by Women 268
Making Assumptions about Women’s Values 269
Motherhood as a Source of Discrimination 271
“Women Should Be at Home” 273
Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation 274
Women’s Working Conditions 275 |
|
| |
In
Search of Gender Equity in the Workplace: Some Remedies 2 |
|
| |
|
Reducing
Gender Stereotypes 277
Pay Equity and Affirmative Action 281 |
|
| |
Perceptions
of Fairness and Reactions to Affirmative Action 284 |
|
Sexual
Harassment in the Workplace 287
A Family-Friendly Workplace? Striving for Work—Family Balance
290
|
|
| |
Childcare:
A Thorny Issue 291
“Best Practices” by U.S. Companies in Aid of a Comfortable
Work—Family Balance 293 |
|
| Having
It All? Stress and the Double Day 293 |
|
| |
Staying
Busy, Staying Healthy? 294 |
|
The
Future of Women’s Work 295
Summary 297
Key Terms 299
Discussion Questions 299
For Additional Reading 299
Web Resources 300 |
|
| |
|
|
|
CHAPTER
9
Physical Health, Illness, and Healing
|
301 |
Women’s
Strength and Fitness 303
Women and Physical Illness around the World 307 |
|
| |
Life
Expectancy 307
Some Major Health Problems for Women 308 |
|
| |
|
Anemia
309
Autoimmune Diseases 309
Tropical Diseases 310
Tuberculosis 310
Reproductive Health 310
Sexually Transmitted Infections 311
Heart Disease 313
Cancer 314
Osteoporosis 316
Alzheimer’s Disease 317 |
|
| Factors
Related to Women’s Health 317 |
|
| |
Health-
and Illness-Related Behaviors 317 |
|
| |
|
Diet
318
Exercise 318
Smoking 318
Seeking Help and Advice 320 |
|
| |
Poverty
and Nutrition 320
Stress and Social Support 321 |
|
| |
|
Caregiver
Burden 323 |
|
Women
as Patients in Health Care Systems 325
Women as Healers 327
Summary 332
Key Terms 333
Discussion Questions 333
For Additional Reading 333
Web Resources 334 |
|
| |
|
|
|
CHAPTER
10
Mental Health, Illness, and Therapy
|
335 |
| Gender
and Mental Health 337 |
|
| |
A
Double Standard of Mental Health? 338 |
|
| Women
and Mental Illness around the World 338 |
|
| |
Depression
340 |
|
| |
|
The
Feminine-Role Hypothesis 343
The Relationship Difficulties Hypothesis 344
The Stress Hypothesis 346
The Hormone Hypothesis 347
The Developmental Hypothesis 347
Suicide 348 |
|
| |
Eating
Disorders 349
Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia 352
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 354
Alcohol and Drug Abuse 355 |
|
| Diagnosis
and Treatment 358 |
|
| |
The
Politics of Diagnosis 359
Psychotherapy 361 |
|
| |
|
Feminist
Therapies 364
Diversity Issues in Psychotherapy 365 |
|
| |
Drug
Therapy 369 |
|
The Social Construction of Women’s Mental Disorders
371
Summary 372
Key Terms 373
Discussion Questions 374
For Additional Reading 374
Web Resources 375 |
|
| |
|
|
|
CHAPTER
11
Myths and Scripts for Women Growing Older |
376 |
| The
Social Construction of Women’s Aging 378 |
|
| |
Images
of Decline: Media Messages about Women’s Aging 379
Missing Images: Invisible Older Women 381
Images of Power: Stronger, Older Women 381 |
|
| Encountering
Menopause: The Cultural Shaping of a Physiological Event 386 |
|
| |
The
Physical Change 386
The Experience of Menopause across Cultures 386
A Brief History of Medicine’s Approach to Menopause 388
The Debate over Hormone Replacement Therapy 390
Menopause and the Politics of Aging across Cultures 392 |
|
| New
Roles and Relationships 393 |
|
| |
The
Empty Nest: Loss or Liberation? 393
Career Change and Retirement 394
Losing a Life Partner 395 |
|
Rejecting
the Message of Decline 398
Summary 399
Key Terms 400
Discussion Questions 400
For Additional Reading 400
Web Resources 401 |
|
| |
|
|
|
CHAPTER
12
Sexualities
|
402 |
Research
on Sexuality: Where Do Our “Facts” Come From? 404
Sexual Desire and Sexual Response 409 |
|
| |
The
Medical Model of Sexuality and the Veneration of the Orgasn 413
|
|
| Sexual
Orientation 415 |
|
| |
Defining
Sexual Orientation 415
Is Women’s Sexual Orientation Inborn? Discovered? Constructed
All of the Above? 418 |
|
| The
Social Context of Sexual Behavior 419 |
|
| |
Culture
and Sexual Scripts 419 |
|
| |
|
The
Double Standard 421 |
|
| |
Issues
in Lesbian Sexualities 424 |
|
| |
|
Pleasure
424
Danger 425 |
|
| |
Sexualities
and Disabilities 426 |
|
| Managing
the Consequences of Sex 427 |
|
| |
Contraception
428
“Safe Sex” and Sexually Transmitted Diseases 433 |
|
Motivations
for Sex: Issues of Desire, Love, Power, and Money 4
Summary 439
Key Terms 441
Discussion Questions 442
For Additional Reading 442
Web Resources 443 |
|
| |
|
|
|
CHAPTER
13
Violence against Women: A Worldwide Problem
|
444 |
Battering
in Close Relationships 447
Dating Violence 447 |
|
| |
Husbands
Abusing Wives 449 |
|
| |
|
Psychological
and Emotional Abuse 453
Wife Murder for Money or “Honor” 453 |
|
| |
Violence
in Lesbian Couples 456
Explaining Partner Abuse 457 |
|
Sex-Selective
Abortion, Infanticide, and Systematic Neglect of Girls 459
Sexual Violence 460 |
|
| |
Rape
460 |
|
| |
|
The
Scope of Rape 461
Attitudes toward Rape and Rape Victims 464
The Impact of Rape 464 |
|
| |
Sexual
Abuse of Children 468
Forced Prostitution and Sex Slavery 468 |
|
| Sexual
Harassment and Intimidation 472 |
|
| |
|
Pornography
and Sexual Violence 474
Intimidation through the Media: Stalkers and Serial Killers on Parade
475 |
|
Torture
and Ill-Treatment of Women in Custody 476
Protecting Women from Violence: Some Strategies 477
Freedom from Persecution on the Basis of Gender: A Human Right 479
Summary 480
Key Terms 482
Discussion Questions 482
For Additional Reading 482
Web Resources 483 |
|
| |
|
|
|
CHAPTER
14
Leadership, Power, and Social Change
|
484 |
| Images
and Stereotypes of Powerful Women 487 |
|
| |
Power
and Femininity Don’t Mix 487
Invisibility 491 |
|
| Motivation,
Skills, and Styles in the Use of Power 494 |
|
| |
Do
Women Want to Lead? 494
Claiming Leadership: Women and Men in Groups 495
Styles of Power and Influence 497 |
|
| |
|
The
Bases of Power 497 |
|
| “It’s
Not in Her Head”: Barriers to Power for Women 500 |
|
| |
Two
Glass Ceilings 500
A Hostile Environment 501
The Difficult Process of Change 504 |
|
| Women
in Power 506 |
|
| |
Women
as Political Leaders 506
Women, Resistance, and Collective Action: Wielding and Building Power
from Below 510 |
|
| |
|
Individual
Resistance 511
Collective Action 511
A New Frontier: Radical Young Feminists 513 |
|
Women
Claiming Power 516
Summary 518
Key Terms 519
Discussion Questions 519
For Additional Reading 519
Web Resources 520 |
|
Glossary
G1
References R1
Credits C1
Author Index I1
Subject Index I12 |
| |
